How Important is Graphic Design in the Consumption of Music? - Finished essay

Daniel Jackson

BA (Hons) Graphic Design

2019/20

How Important is Graphic Design in the Consumption of Music?

5,499 words

Contents

Illustrations - p. 2

Introduction - p. 3

Main Text - p. 4

Conclusion - p. 15

Images - p. 16

Bibliography - p. 21

Illustrations

Figure 1: ‘Smash Song Hits by Rodgers & Hart’ - the first album cover, designed by Alex Steinweiss [Available at: https://illustrationchronicles.com/Alex-Steinweiss-and-the-World-s-First-Record-Cover]

Figure 2: The Rolling Stones’ ‘tongue and lips’ logo [Available at:https://www.udiscovermusic.com/news/rolling-stones-logo-iconic-design/]

Figure 3: Iron Maiden Album Covers [Available at:https://www.reddit.com/r/ironmaiden/comments/7yq3cz/all_16_eddies_from_the_albums_who_is_your_favorite/]

Figure 4: Storm Thorgerson and Hipgnosis’ cover for XTC’s ‘Go 2’ [Available at:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_2]

Figure 5: 1977 Billboard for Pink Floyd’s ‘Animals’ located on the Sunset Strip [Available at:https://www.reddit.com/r/pinkfloyd/comments/5z1uuh/billboard_for_animals_along_the_sunset_strip_in/]

Figure 6: Gigantisme billboard from the 1950’s [Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/549439223259566841/]

Figure 7: Album cover for ‘The Next Day’ by David Bowie, designed by Jonathon Barnbrook [Available at: https://www.drgroov.com/bientot-de-retour-en-stock/255-david-bowie-the-next-day-887654618610.html]

Figure 8: Example of the ‘guerrilla’ advertising used to promote ‘The Next Day’ . [Available at:https://barnbrook.net/work/david-bowie-the-next-day-2/]

Figure 9: Examples of social media users appropriating the white square from ‘The Next Day’ cover on their profile pictures  [Available at: https://barnbrook.net/work/david-bowie-the-next-day-2/] 

I. Introduction

Graphic design is undoubtedly of great importance in not only the consumption, but the enjoyment of music. It can serve as a visual interface and a point of instant contact for listeners; a means to visually decipher and accompany something entirely auditory - ‘I’ve never believed you can listen to music devoid of visual reference’ - Shaughnessy (2008, p. 8). This essay aims to examine graphic design’s significance in music, and the variety of graphic design methods that have aided the consumption of music.  

The most fundamental association between design and music is the album cover - ‘An album cover is the initial moment of the record. It’s the doorway into the music’ - Blake (quoted by Shaughnessy, 2008, p. 6). Alex Steinweiss created the very first album cover in 1939, a photograph of the moveable type sign outside the Imperial Theatre in New York (fig.1). He had convinced the owner of the theatre to allow him to change the letters to the name and artist of the album. Before Steinweiss had the idea to put graphic imagery on record sleeves, they had been packaged in dull paper and cardboard. His employers, Columbia Records, were initially reluctant to invest in this idea, however the benefits were soon clear when they did - ‘when record sales increased by almost nine-hundred percent the idea was obviously heralded as an indisputable success.’ - (Illustration Chronicles, 2016). Soon, attention to the design and production of record packaging couldn’t be ignored - ‘Records, which had typically been sold at the back of appliance stores, had become desirable objects that could capture the imagination (and wallets) of music lovers everywhere.’ - (Illustration Chronicles, 2016). This is because the album cover design allowed consumers a preliminary visual insight into the album, whether they like the design, or maybe just recognised the face of one of their favourite musicians, it’s a means of grabbing attention through a visual image - ‘Design also has the ability to bring in new listeners who may appreciate the visual aesthetic as they see it sitting on the shelf in a record store.’ - Deupree (2008, p. 191).

II. Main Text

When considering the consumption of music, one can think of music acts as brands, and the music they produce as a product or service. In doing so, music’s consumption can be better understood, and graphic design’s role in this can be established. Similarly to commercial brands, often musical acts have logo marks or icons as a visual identifier for the brand. Neumeier (2005, p. 114) suggests that when a brand logo is successful, it is distinctly individual to a brand and functions as part of their visual identity - ‘a good brand icon is like a tailored suit - it should only look good on you’. This suggests that successful logos are definitely an example of a way in which graphic design aids the consumption of music; by acting as a visual mark that consumers of that particular music can use to identify the musical ‘brand’ that they enjoy. This statement can be supported when considering probably the most famous musical logo of all time - The Rolling Stones’s ‘tongue and lips’ (fig.2) - ‘By distilling the essence of the band into one single visual reference, the designer was able to create a logo that worked superbly well for 50 years.’ - Bonigala (quoted by Klara, 2015). However Kedgley (2008, p. 85), disagrees with the effectiveness of logos in music - ‘Branded bands… kinda goes against being a musician/producer/artist, for me. The last thing you would want is the awful logo that you had last time on every piece of music or art that you make’. Kedgley’s opinion on musical logos seems to suggest that he feels the design for each piece of music released by an act should be new, and that consistently using the same logo can be boring and repetitive. This opinion certainly has merit, and it somewhat seems to align with Neumeier’s views on the modern brand paradigm - 

‘They behave more like organisms, than organisations, shifting and growing and dividing and combining as needed. Unlike the old corporate identity paradigm that prized uniformity and consistency, the new brand paradigm sacrifices those qualities in favour of being alive and dynamic’ - (2005, p. 133)

Upon further analysis of this paradigm however, one can see that this fluidity and idea of constantly refreshing the identity of a brand that Neumeier refers to does not mean an identity that entirely changes, more so an identity that adapts constantly in order to stay relevant with its audience. Ultimately, though its possible that consumers of a certain musical act might get bored of a consistently used logo and instead value fresh and new visuals each time, these consumers will almost always be outnumbered by those who like the instant contact a logo provides - the assurance that they are consuming a musical act that they value - ‘And people need an image to look at. As Aristotle said, 'the soul cannot think without an image’ - Jones (quoted by Shadbolt, 2015)

The effectiveness of logos in music can be further informed by considering the theory of ‘Charismatic Brands’ which Neumeier describes as - ‘any product, service, or company for which people believe there’s no substitute … Because its the language of feeling, and, in a society that’s information rich and time poor, people value feeling more than information’ (2005, p.19). Commercially, brands like Nike or Apple are classified as charismatic brands, and because of this their logos are iconic and irreplaceable. Considering this within the context of music, the Rolling Stones can be thought of as a charismatic brand - their logo is universally known and recognisable. If they had never developed a logo, would this have effected their success, and subsequently the consumption of their music? Perhaps not massively, however the fact of the matter is that their logo, a piece of graphic design, has functioned as a brand icon, visually identifying them to consumers, and therefore increasing the consumption of their music. This can be considered universally true for any music act; regardless of the magnitude of their status, if their logo has served as a visual identifier to consumers, it has fulfilled its purpose.

Beyond a recognisable logo, music acts can also use other recurring visual identifiers to ‘brand themselves’ and in doing so, increase their brand loyalty. A notable example of this is the album covers of Iron Maiden (fig.3); since their debut album in 1980, every studio album cover has featured their distinctive logotype at the top and an image of their mascot ‘Eddie’ in a different scene/scenario, illustrated in a consistent comic art style. ‘Eddie’ was created by designer Derek Riggs who designed all the bands covers from 1980 - 1992 and is often credited with being integral in Iron Maiden’s success, because of this continuous visual identity and mascot that fans become familiar with - ‘Riggs unknowingly created one of the most iconic images in rock n' roll today’ - (Spinditty, 2018). When bands adopt a distinct visual style like this, it’s important that it communicates the style of their music as succinctly as possible in order to align with the preferred style of visual communication of their fans - ‘we began to realise that the audience for one product was likely to be different than the audience for another, and that its taste in design was also likely to be different’ - Neumeier (2005, p. 105) - when the visual identity achieves this, it creates brand loyalty amongst consumers; fans of Iron Maiden will grow to associate the style of their album covers with their music, and when a new album comes out that conforms to this visual style, they are assured that this is the band that they know and enjoy listening to, and subsequently maintain their loyalty to the brand - ‘branding is simply a convenient package for a business idea’ - Neumeier (2005, p. 95). 

However, though this could be construed as a conscious strategy to increase the consumption of the band’s music through brand loyalty, it could also be construed as a lack of ‘originality’, as Shaughnessy (2008, p. 7) refers to - ‘The major labels still commission cover art, but it’s rare to find examples with any resonance or originality’. Often when brands identify a successful approach, the temptation is to continue using that approach as its a safe option that they know will be successful, a notion Shaughnessy further emphasises - ‘Left to their own devices, the big labels are generally unwilling to stray from the safe formula of glamorous and heavily styled artists’ pictures and retail - friendly layouts’ - (2008, p. 7).  While this method of playing it safe in order to ensure sales is effective, its not as effective as it could be; the most effective album cover design is both familiar to consumers, yet also new and exciting, an idea that is analysed in ‘The MAYA Principle’ theorised by industrial designer Raymond Loewy - ‘Maya is an abbreviation for “Most Advanced. Yet Acceptable.” which means that Loewy sought to give his users the most advanced design, but not more advanced than what they were able to accept and embrace’ - Dam (2019). While the graphic design of the Iron Maiden covers has certainly been successful in creating brand loyalty and increasing the consumption of the bands music, when considering the MAYA principle, is it purely an ‘acceptable’ approach which could be more ‘advanced’ and innovative? And in being more advanced, could this use of graphic design be even more successful when increasing the consumption of the band’s music?

A good example of an album cover that effectively conforms to the MAYA principle is the cover for XTC’s album ‘Go 2’ (fig.4), designed by Storm Thorgerson and Hipgnosis Studio in 1978. The cover’s subversion of conventional record sleeve design was both innovative and attention grabbing. By shunning the use of a bold eye-catching image or visual metaphor -‘It brutally strips away, with a knowing perversity, any of the ingredients that an album cover should have … No band logo, no colour photography (on the outside), no clues, nothing’ - Ellery (quoted by Powell, 2017, p. 253). Instead the cover displays a captivating piece written by Thorgerson about album cover design and the consumer process of buying records based on their visual intrigue - ‘we’re letting you know that you ought to buy this record because in essence it’s a PRODUCT and PRODUCTS are to be consumed and you are a consumer and this is a good PRODUCT’ - Thorgerson (1978). What the cover does is captivate the viewer even more than a beautiful image would because they get drawn into reading it and feel that they have to read it all the way through - ‘the more you read on the more you’re falling for this simple device of telling you exactly how a good commercial design works’. Evidently this was very effective, as Powell (2017, p. 252) confirms - ‘the idea created a lot of publicity, as - out of sheer curiosity - the viewer could not help but read the front cover’. When talking about the cover, designer Jonathan Ellery even goes as far as to say - ‘I would have bought the Go 2 album even if they were rubbish because of the way it looked’  (2017, p. 253) - this statement undoubtedly confirms the effectiveness of the cover. If a consumer is willing to buy a record, not for the music but for the aesthetic value of the accompanying cover, then it is abundantly evident that the consumption of this record has been substantially aided by the application of graphic design to its packaging. 

In a very similar fashion to when a musical act uses consistent visuals to form a visual identity, which in turn creates brand loyalty, musical subcultures can be seen to do the very same thing, however on a larger scale. Neumeier (2005, p. 41) talks about how products can be a part of the identity of consumers - ‘You’re part of a select clan (or so you feel) when you buy products from these clearly differentiated companies’. Considering music as the aforementioned ‘product’, it’s very true that the music one listens to can form a large part of their identity, Lusensky (2011) states how important music is to people - ‘Music has been ranked as the media most people would least like to live without’. For members of musical subcultures, their identity is so intrinsically rooted in the music, style and beliefs of that subculture - ‘allegiance to a group suggests conformity to its image, values and practises’ - Muggleton (2000, p. 59), so ultimately, it can be assumed that if a subculture has a distinct visual language and style, this too becomes part of its followers identities. 

Subculture’s have their own visual style, their own voice, which spans across a multitude of different musical acts within that genre. Followers of any given subculture can identify this visual style as that of the subculture they have formed an allegiance to, and this subsequently means that any band or act that uses this visual style can attract new listeners from within that subculture, simply through the appropriate use of graphic design, a sentiment echoed by Neumeier (2005, p. 105), as referenced previously - ‘we began to realise that the audience for one product was likely to be different than the audience for another, and that its taste in design was also likely to be different’.

In the case of larger subcultures, this individual design style has extended further than just album covers and logos, to publications and printed formats of communication, this is most aptly evidenced in the Punk subculture. Muggleton (2000, p. 135) talked about these examples of ‘micro-media’ within the Punk subculture - ‘micro-media such as fanzines, listings, posters and flyers, are also integral to the networking process of assembling individuals as a crowd for a specific purpose and imbuing them with a particular identity’. The way Muggleton refers to these examples of micro-media being used for a ‘specific purpose’ to ‘imbue’ people with a ‘particular identity’ almost makes it sound like this punk visual style was used to persuade it’s followers and gain their trust, and it’s conceivable to see that by using this specific punk style for an album cover or a fanzine, it would be consumed a lot more because this visual style is part of Punk’s followers identities and they will be instantly drawn to it. Hebdige (1979, p. 101) supports this idea by suggesting the style and visual identity of subcultures is ‘fabricated’ - ‘This is what distinguishes the visual ensembles of spectacular subcultures from those favoured in the surrounding culture(s). They are obviously fabricated’. So ultimately what can be seen here, is appropriately applied graphic design being used to increase the consumption of a genre of music, by appealing to its followers identities. Healy (2017) suggests this success was because Punk design was so closely tied with the ideals and values of the Punk subculture, as a method of visual communication, it encapsulated Punk incredibly succinctly - ‘During a time when those in the punk scene shunned mainstream culture by modifying their clothes through a DIY mentality, it was a natural progression for the DIY ideals to spread to other forms: posters, zines, flyers, and other communication materials’. As Healy states, all it took was designers such as Jamie Reid - ‘who translated this uncaged angst into a style of cut-and-paste collage artwork that came to define the chaos of punk rock as we know it today’ - to conceive this visual style, and with a subculture as potent as Punk, a design style was born that visualised the identities of all its followers - ‘It was also fertile ground for a new kind of design aesthetic’ - (Healy, 2017). The D.I.Y style of punk; cut and paste newspaper letters, drawings and handwriting, graffiti and clashing colours all photocopied into an image became the voice of the punk subculture because it visually represented their anti-establishment view, they literally shunned any notion of ‘good’ graphic design and this was partly down to the fact that so many members of the punk subculture who were making flyers, fanzines and posters weren’t actually designers, but the punk design method was so rudimentary that anyone could do it. This explains how it became so integral in the subculture, and how it become part of peoples identities; because anyone could do it - it was everywhere. 

Another way that graphic design can positively effect the consumption of music is through the advertising of music; advertising is unequivocally effective at promoting and creating exposure for any given product. Berlyne (1954, quoted by East, 2003, p. 56) suggests that advertising is most effective when we see it for the first time, because its disrupting a space that is usually seen without that advertisement - ‘The first exposure of an ad is likely to secure more attention because we alert to unusual stimuli. People give more attention to objects that are novel, changing, incongruous, surprising, complex or indistinct’. Henderson and Landau (1980, p. 57) concur with Berlyne’s perspective, highlighting how graphic designers have utilised ‘unusual visual techniques’ to capture the publics attention - ‘With a public made more receptive to pictures than text, graphic designers abandoned wordy messages in favour of campaigns using more unusual visual techniques’. An example of this is the billboard on Sunset Strip advertising Pink Floyd’s ‘Animals’ in 1977 (fig.5), a design that simply featured 3 illustrated animals on a white background, with no text or information at all. This lack of context, creates an intriguing ad that people would talk about - an ‘unusual visual technique’ as Henderson & Landau refer to it as.

When considering advertising’s effect in increasing the consumption of music, Henderson and Landau put forth a lot insight into how the billboard became a prominent platform for the advertisement of music, and what graphic design methods were used to create intrigue and advertise succinctly. In the 50’s, the graphic design used on billboards evolved from wordier informative layouts to bolder visual compositions designed to grab viewers attention (fig. 6) - ‘The new ‘gigantisme’ in billboard art set the trend for the portrayal of products in larger and larger dimensions. Previously unnoticed details now make the image memorable and easier to see while driving at faster highway speeds’ (1980, p. 56). This era of ‘gignatisme’ in billboard design saw graphic designers push the boundaries of design in order to visually persuade the public to buy a product, Henderson and Landau talk about how very soon these methods were applied to the advertisement of music - ‘In major cities billboards helped create this kind of popularity for groups like the Beatles. The billboard become one of the most important vehicles for the international packaging and promotion of entertainment, and superstars in particular’ (1980, p. 59). Henderson and Landau continue further, expressing that promoting music artists publicly on such a large scale increased the consumption of their music and gave them this ‘superstar’ status - ‘The same marketing strategy made the superstar phenomenon possible. Now an entertainer was promoted as if he were larger than life’ (1980, p. 59). However, Senie (1999, 23) expresses disagreement with very image heavy advertisements -‘if words alone are a difficult strategy, images alone are perhaps even more so’. She goes on to state how if the focus of an advert is on image and not words, then the meaning and purpose of the advert can be lost or - ‘may be misread or not register with the audience at all’. Ultimately, this method of graphic design used to advertise musicians and increase the consumption of their music did work well in the latter half of the 20th century because the musical acts advertised were indeed ‘superstars’ they were so well known that the ads did not need to say their name, because everyone knew who they were - ‘The explosive popularity of certain film and recording stars, for example, sold far more than just record albums and movie tickets …  as long as they bore the image of the latest idol’ - Henderson and Landau (1980, p. 59).

However, in an era now where our society is so over-saturated by advertisement, designers have used more intriguing concepts and design methods in order to cut through the information overload and grab the public’s attention, which relates back to the ‘MAYA’ principle - the most advanced yet acceptable approach. A fantastic example of advertising for music that succinctly adheres to the MAYA Principle is the marketing campaign for David Bowie’s 2013 album ‘The Next Day’. Graphic Designer Jonathon Barnbrook designed the cover for the album (fig. 7) ; based on the heavy themes of self reflection within the album, Barnbrook took the iconic cover for Bowie’s ‘Heroes’ album, and on top simply placed a white square, concealing Bowie’s face and reading the title of the album. As an album cover, this was a bold and conceptual approach, however what was even bolder was the ‘guerrilla’ marketing campaign that followed (fig.8). Continuing with the use of the white square and a disruptive visual device, Barnbrook pasted this white square all over the place in public, most notably on pre-existing billboard ads. Barnbrook’s website informs that - ‘The campaign received acclaim for being an extremely successful and original example of marketing’ - Barnbrook (2013). Ultimately, this marketing campaign is an example of how graphic design concepts and methods have increased the consumption of music through advertisement. This guerrilla marketing campaign demonstrates the immediacy of print based ads and the effect they can have when disrupting a public space. However as technology progresses even further, and digital formats of music, advertisement and communication have started to prevail over physical and printed formats, this has undoubtedly caused an effect in the way music is consumed, and graphic design’s role in that consumption. The points explored in this essay demonstrate examples of when graphic design has aided the consumption of music, the majority of these examples being from the past. This does not invalidate them in light of the digital age, they are still successful examples of graphic design influencing the consumption of music, however what must be considered is how the advancement in technology has effected music’s consumption now.

Barnbrook’s ad campaign demonstrates a successful use of print based ads to promote the release of an album, they were successful because of the guerrilla marketing style that was used to apply them to existing ads and public spaces, a method supported by Diggs (1999, p. 34) -

‘But if an artist infiltrates the banal billboard format with another kind of communication - the ‘wrong’ message appearing in a familiar context - then a glitch in the viewer’s assumptions might make her see this communication differently. This is how billboard art can cut through much of the white noise of our day’. 

This success lends itself to printed ads so much more effectively because of the physicality of them, they’re tangible and therefore the infiltration is much more surprising. Asatryan (2006, p. 8) talks about how humans build stronger associations and feelings towards physical objects when discussing Ownership Theory -  'Humans experience special feelings toward the objects of their ownership and develop strong attitudes towards the relationships built based on such feelings’. On the other hand, East (2003, p. 91) talks about how digital advertisement can work with effect - ‘Online advertising can deliver widely different results so that improvements in copy and website placement offer large benefits’.  The fluidity and instant adaptability of digital web based advertisements does indeed offer large benefits, however it is also exactly why methods such as the print based guerrilla marketing ad would not work on a digital format; because its so instantly adaptable, infiltrating a space is less shocking for viewers. During the promotional period of the album however, fans of the album appropriated the white square used on the cover and ads, and put it on their social media profile pictures (fig.9) - ‘It even prompted a website that allows its users to style any image in a similar way to the album’ - Barnbrook (2013) - this demonstrates the benefits of digital medias; instant communication and connectivity. And while it was instigated by the fans and not part of the official marketing campaign, one could argue that it was the simple yet effective application of graphic design that brought on the idea for fans to use it in their own profile pictures in support of the album’s release. 

The increasing use of digital formats does not mean the complete end of physical and printed advertisements, because as proved by Barnbrook’s campaign for ‘The Next Day’, they can be more successful than digital ads in certain circumstances. For an ad campaign to be as effective as possible, physical and digital formats need to be used in conjunction, at least for the time being. Ultimately regardless of the format, graphic design is still being used as a tool to persuade consumers to buy an album, it just needs to be adapted and applied differently for digital formats. 

Similarly, the digital age has brought on changes in subcultures, and subsequently, the amount that graphic design can be used to appeal to members of subculture’s identities by adopting a certain style of graphic design. Subcultures have not disappeared entirely, Palahniuk (quoted by Bigge, 2008) argues that they never will - 'There will always be an underground … a backlash of veiled, hidden societies’, an opinion which Hebdige (1988, quoted by Ferrell, 2009, p. 23) shares - ‘Subculture forms up in the space between surveillance and the evasion of surveillance, it translates the fact of being under scrutiny into the pleasure of being watched. It is a hiding in the light’. Hebdige’s opinion even suggests that subcultures should thrive even more now, since the digital age has brought on an increase in surveillance, they have even more of an opportunity to have the ‘pleasure of being watched’. In the 70’s when youths joined punk subcultures, they did so through hearing the music, word of mouth or through designed objects like fanzines, however in the digital age, the internet is the main form of communication, and it has created a world were all information is at one’s fingertips. In the 70’s, the music you consumed was limited to what music you could afford, but streaming services now offer an unlimited supply of any music you could ask for - ‘Fashion and music, they're much cheaper and they're much faster today’ - Adams (quoted by Petridis, 2014). Essentially, the abundance of information, products and communication that the internet has provided, has created a society where potent subcultures like punk, that practically formed some of its followers entire identities, can no longer exist because there is so much more available now to form one’s identity. The majority of people no longer devote their entire identity to one subculture, genre or group now, instead, in our consumer society, many things influence our identities such as brands - ‘Now, it's all a bit more blurry, the semiotic signs are not quite as hard-edged as they used to be’ - Adams (quoted by Petridis, 2014).

What does this mean for graphic design’s role in subcultures, and its ability to be part of peoples identities by adopting a design aesthetic linked with a specific subculture? While it may be the case that there are less subcultures now, and that the subcultures that do still exist have been satiated by the internet and popular culture, specific design styles are still linked with specific genres, and in turn these design styles appeal visually to that genres audience. An astute example of this is design associated with metal music - ‘Heavy metal’s extremity, as a set of aesthetic choices and as a way of life, exerts an enduring fascination for observers that’s part admiration, part repulsion. As with other kinds of popular music, fans grow older but they don’t necessarily grow out of it’ - Poyner (2012).

‘We live in an era where the demand for music - in both its recorded and live forms - has never been greater. But music ‘consumers’ no longer want to acquire music in the traditional manner, and the record industry is not set up to deal with this demand from a mass audience’ - Shaughnessy (2008, p. 7). 

When considering graphic design’s role in the consumption of music, and how it has changed as a result of moving into the digital age, the most important thing to consider, really, is how music as a product itself has changed. Physical music formats have long since died out as the primary means to consume music, with consumers now streaming/downloading music. And while some purists cannot deny the tangibility of a vinyl record or a CD - ‘I somehow don’t feel like I ‘own’ the music unless I have a tangible version.’ - Goggin (2008, p. 72), the immediacy, simplicity and low cost of streaming music is undeniable. So what does this mean for the album cover - The primary application of graphic design in music? Many designers have explored this topic; Shaughnessy (2008, p. 7) holds the view that the album cover is becoming increasingly irrelevant because of the multitude of ways to consume music now as a result of technological advances - ‘the album cover is now only one of many platforms for the visual expression of a band’s identity. And for a new generation growing up in an era of downloading, the record cover is increasingly likely to be viewed as an irrelevancy’. Whereas, Wozencroft (quoted by Shaughnessy, 2008, p.8) believes that music needs accompanying visuals in order to provide context - ‘you need some kind of holistic, reconciling agent alongside the music, some editorial aspect that functions as a gentle storytelling device alongside the invisible force of the music’. These two opinions form opposite ends of the argument, with Shaughnessy adopting a very realist view on the matter and Wozencroft holding out hope for the album cover. On the other hand, instead of just stating his his opinion, Jank (2008, p. 95) gives more of a practical concern - ‘Another concern is what it looks like as a 150-pixel JPEG? Something that would probably seem insulting to the cover designers of the past’. Jank’s view on the topic seems to cut down the middle of Shaughnessy and Wozencroft’s; he does accept that the digital era of streaming music has changed the way we interact with album covers, and takes that concern on board, considering how the method of designing album covers can adapt to meet consumers needs. Goggin (2008, p. 72) touches upon this idea when talking about an album that he bought that came with an ‘interactive booklet’. While he states this example wasn’t particularly successful, he does express that it could be an interesting way forward for digital album design - 

‘It came with an ‘interactive booklet’ consisting of extra photography, links to printable PDF posters on Matador’s website and full production credits. In itself it was poorly put together and took some messing around in iTunes to make it work. But I really think labels and companies like Apple should do more of this: include print-quality PDFs or jpegs with digital releases, additional material, videos etc.’ 

This fundamentally links back to Asatryan's (2006, p. 8) idea about the theory of ownership; this digital booklet aims to replicate the tangibility of physical music formats and packaging as best as it can, without being physical. 

III. Conclusion

Ultimately, graphic design has been essential in the music industry as a means of visual communication to connect fans and consumers to music. Graphic designers have: created consistent visual identities for musical acts, making them instantly recognisable to their fans; they have formed the visual language and voice of different subcultures, creating work that becomes part of people’s identities and  they have designed advertisements and marketing campaigns that have been able to surprise, engage and capture the interest of music consumers. Now, in the age of digital downloads and music streaming, graphic designers can no longer use design to engage consumers in the same way they could before - ‘the simple fact that the traditional primacy of the record cover as the principal visual component of a band or musician’s image no longer holds true’ - Shaughnessy (2008, p. 7). A new generation of designers needs to adapt graphic design to suit the digital way it is now consumed. This is not the first time that advancements in technology have required designers to adapt to a new format; designers in the 80’s had to adapt vinyl sleeve designs to fit the smaller size of CD’s, and while some designers just scaled existing vinyl sleeve designs down, leading to illegible type and imagery that was too small, more intuitive designers learnt to use simpler, bolder imagery and to scale up the type within the composition to still be legible. Music and design, the visual and the auditory, have long since been entwined and they shall continue to be, in whatever format that turns into -  ‘I’ve never believed you can listen to music devoid of visual reference’ - Shaughnessy (2008, p. 8).

Images

Figure 1: ‘Smash Song Hits by Rodgers & Hart’ - the first album cover, designed by Alex Steinweiss [Available at: https://illustrationchronicles.com/Alex-Steinweiss-and-the-World-s-First-Record-Cover] 

Figure 2: The Rolling Stones’ ‘tongue and lips’ logo [Available at:https://www.udiscovermusic.com/news/rolling-stones-logo-iconic-design/] 

Figure 3: Iron Maiden Album Covers [Available at:https://www.reddit.com/r/ironmaiden/comments/7yq3cz/all_16_eddies_from_the_albums_who_is_your_favorite/]

Figure 4: Storm Thorgerson and Hipgnosis’ cover for XTC’s ‘Go 2’ [Available at:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_2] 

Figure 5: 1977 Billboard for Pink Floyd’s ‘Animals’ located on the Sunset Strip [Available at:https://www.reddit.com/r/pinkfloyd/comments/5z1uuh/billboard_for_animals_along_the_sunset_strip_in/] 

Figure 6: Gigantisme billboard from the 1950’s [Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/549439223259566841/] 

Figure 7: Album cover for ‘The Next Day’ by David Bowie, designed by Jonathon Barnbrook [Available at: https://www.drgroov.com/bientot-de-retour-en-stock/255-david-bowie-the-next-day-887654618610.html] 

Figure 8: Example of the ‘guerrilla’ advertising used to promote ‘The Next Day’ . [Available at:https://barnbrook.net/work/david-bowie-the-next-day-2/] 

Figure 9: Examples of social media users appropriating the white square from ‘The Next Day’ cover on their profile pictures  [Available at: https://barnbrook.net/work/david-bowie-the-next-day-2/] 

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